Alternative energy, Perpetual, Overunity, Zero Point and Free energy systems
These days we often hear about these terms, which are mostly used in so called fringe science websites and articles. Most people dismiss the contents of such information as soon as they are presented with one of the above mentioned terms. We do not usually learn much about these terms in any scientific course, nor are they mentioned in most of our textbooks, however, it is very important one knows the correct definitions for such systems, before discrediting what might be a serious article or website content that might really offer something new to our civilisation.
Alternative energy
Fossil fuels, are considered to be today's main energy source. These involve the burning of coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. Fuel combustion heats water to create steam, which turns a turbine, which, in turn, generates electricity, waste heat, and polluting combustion gas by-products. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These are the main fuels used today to power our houses and automobiles.
Alternative energy systems are those systems which aim at finding other ways to source our energy needs (mainly in the electrical form), by converting mostly natural resources instead of fossil fuels. These include hydroelectric, nuclear, wind, wave, biomass, hydrogen, vegetable oil, tidal, solar, and geothermal systems. The problem with most of these systems is that in most cases, energy is not available on demand, and must be stored in order to be used when the source is inactive. Another problem relates to the technology in producing the actual energy converting devices, because some of them require more energy during their production process than all the summed up energy they convert during their whole lifetime!
Perpetual motion and overunity
Pictorial evidence of apparently perpetual machines, mainly of self rotating wheels, are found scattered across the globe in different civilizations, and date back to about 2000 BC. The present definition of perpetual motion refers to a condition in which an object continues to move indefinitely without being driven by an external source of energy. In effect by its very definition, such motion requires a system which consumes and outputs at least 100% of its energy constantly, sustaining ZERO net loss as a result of the laws of thermodynamics. So, by its own definition, perpetual motion would violate either the first or second or both laws of thermodynamics and is thus considered impossible. Perpetual machines are classified in two categories, referred to as class 1 and class 2. A perpetual motion machine of the first kind produces strictly more energy than it uses, thus violating the law of conservation of energy. Over-unity devices, that is, devices with a thermodynamic efficiency greater than 100% (unity), are perpetual motion machines of this kind. A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which spontaneously converts thermal energy into mechanical work. This need not violate the law of conservation of energy, since the thermal energy may be equivalent to the work done; however it does violate the more subtle second law of thermodynamics. Note that such a machine is different from classical heat engines, which always involve a transfer of heat from a hotter reservoir to a colder one, the latter being warmed up in the process. The signature of a perpetual motion machine of the second kind is that there is only one single heat reservoir involved, which is being spontaneously cooled without involving a transfer of heat to a cooler reservoir, against the law of entropy. This conversion of heat into useful work, without any side effect, is impossible by the second law of thermodynamics.
However, not all machines that 'run forever' fall under the category of perpetual motion. We can give examples of possible ways which can move indefinitely, without breaking any of these two laws. For example, it is possible to design a machine to run on the differences in either barometric pressure, tidal, gravity or temperature shifts between night and day. Such machines have a source of energy, and even if they can do work indefinitely, that is, as long as both machine and the universe exist, they do not fall under the category of perpetual machines, and hence are theoretically possible. The problems arise, when such perpetual machines use a kind of energy which has not yet been yet identified and accepted in mainstream science, sometimes, even if there is undeniable proof of its existence. Classical examples of such systems include cold fusion, magnetic, and gravity or zero point energy converters. However, even in such cases, these cannot be categorised as perpetual systems, and do not break the first and second laws of thermodynamics. All they break is usually a paradigm, and for the same reason, we might be able to show, that the above wheel pictures may in fact not be mythical wheels, but real wheels which turn using energy residing in the vacuum, and that after all, do not violate neither the law of conservation of energy, nor the known laws of thermodynamics.
Free energy
Free energy does not mean perpetual motion, although perpetual motion does imply free energy. Free energy, are alternative energy conversion systems that tap into naturally and preferably abundant and clean sources of energy. The term 'free' does not usually refer to the cost of the system, which is usually far from being free, but to the cost of 'fuel' keeping it going. In fact, some of the existing alternative energy solutions, fall under the free energy category. These include solar, wind, tide, and geothermal, but also non-conventional ways, such as zero point energy, radiant energy, cold fusion, and magnet motors. Unless somebody can first prove that the zero point energy contains zero energy, extracting power from this vast sea of energy that surrounds us is no more impossible than extracting power from a solar cell. A free energy system, which is not a perpetual system, does not violate the second law of thermodynamics. It is simply a conversion of energy from one form of free 'fuel' into another form that is usable. It is very different from perpetual systems, which expect the creation of energy out of nothing. One has to note however, that a free energy system whose type of energy at its input is not recognised, or not easily detected, can sometimes be dismissed as a perpetual energy system.
Before introducing (or revisiting) the most important laws of physics, I feel it is imperative for one to be cautious of a dangerous threat hidden in every law - THE POSTULATE. The term postulate, sometimes also referred to as an axiom, indicates a starting assumption from which other statements are logically derived. It does not have to be self-evident. Some postulates are experimental facts, but some are just assumptions not based on anything. One such example is the constancy of speed of light in Einstein's special relativity theory. All laws and theories have at least one postulate, otherwise, the chain of derivations within it will have no beginning, and would therefore be a circular definition. An example of a circular definition is Einstein's way to describe gravity using the rubber sheet analogy, which describes the particle 'sloping down' in the vicinity of a massive object, due to a force (of gravity) underneath the rubber sheet. So to avoid a circular definition, some initial statements not necessarily following from anything are required to build a logical law or theory. These initial statements are called postulates. Although not always the case, postulates are usually evident from experimental work, but sometimes, they are just based on intuition, or general approval, or perhaps made up for the sole purpose of serving as basis of a new theory. One such example is the cosmic inflation postulate, supporting the Big Bang theory. Unfortunately, many theories and laws are being spoon fed to students without exposing the fundamental postulates on which the same theories have been built, postulates which could make the theory fail in particular applications, or which may result to be plain wrong if scrutinised. So, before blindly applying any law to your problem, make sure you get to know all underlying postulates, and make sure they can be correctly applied to your particular problem.
The laws of Thermodynamics
The Zeroth Law states: If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
This law has been introduced recently in the 20th century, much later than the following three laws. It basically states that when two systems are put in contact with each other, there will be a net exchange of energy between them unless or until they are in thermal equilibrium. We know that 99% of the 'material' universe is made up plasma, the fourth state of matter. A particle of dust in space must continually be exchanging energy with the surrounding vacuum as plasma does, until they reach thermal equilibrium.
This means that the energy in the so called 'vacuum' surrounding the dust particle, must eventually have an energy level equal to mc2 where m is the mass of the dust particle and c is the speed of light. Any difference between the mass equivalent energy, and the external vacuum energy will result in radiation or absorption of energy between the two entities (particle and vacuum). A clear example of this effect is the radiation emitted by radioactive elements, as well as that emitted by the sun. Although I am sure this law is not introduced in such a way in your physics textbooks, the zeroth law is in fact a direct proof for the existence of the vacuum energy, or extragalactic radiation that pervades all space around us.
The first law states: In any process, the total energy of the universe remains constant. It simply means that the amount of energy lost in a steady state process cannot be greater than the amount of energy gained. This is the only thermodynamic law that is not statistical, and thus is considered the only secure law of present science. In physics, this is known as the law of conservation of energy of isolated systems. Notice the hidden postulates: isolated system, and a closed finite universe. Nöether's Theorem, states that if a system has a particular symmetry, there is a quantity associated with that symmetry that is conserved. By this theorem, the principle of conservation of energy is a consequence of invariance under time translations, that is symmetry in time. The conservation of energy law does not apply to systems which are not symmetrical upon time translation or reversal, nor does it apply if the system is not isolated or the universe is not finite.
The second law states: There is no process that, operating in a cycle, produces no other effect than the subtraction of a positive amount of heat from a reservoir and the production of an equal amount of work. This means that energy systems have a tendency to increase their entropy rather than decrease it. It is known however that a microscopic system may exhibit fluctuations of entropy opposite to that dictated by the Second Law, and so, this law is only valid for macroscopic systems or long durations. Quoting Maxwell (who was also a thermodynamicist): 'The truth of the second law is a statistical, not a mathematical, truth, for it depends on the fact that the bodies we deal with consist of millions of molecules. Hence the second law of thermodynamics is continually being violated, and that to a considerable extent, in any sufficiently small group of molecules belonging to a real body.' (J. C. Maxwell, Tait's Thermodynamics II, Nature 17, 278-280 [7 February 1878]).
The third law states: As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant, equal to null.
It is not usually stressed enough, the fact that there is a very fundamental assumption in these laws, even in the first most 'secure' law of thermodynamics, or what we usually refer to as COE (conservation of energy). They ASSUME a closed system, and are born out of pure mathematics or statistical work, unprovable in the real world. Unprovable, because no one has yet been able to isolate a closed system. We are not even sure that the universe as a whole can be regarded as a closed system, which is a strict requirement for the conservation of energy law! In fact principles such as uncertainty, and entanglement, would seem to indicate that either it is impossible for a truly closed system to exist, or that our idea of a closed system is not taking into account other phenomena or energy exchanges which cannot be easily or possibly isolated from our systems. For example, one might consider a mechanical engine as a closed system, and finds out that it's impossible to get two similar efficiency readings. This could for example be due to changes in external ambient temperatures which were not taken into account in the first place. So, in such a case, ambient heat must be taken into account as part of the system. But, still, we find that even at absolute zero Kelvin, the ground state energy does not go to zero, and this means that other yet unknown energy sources must be taken account, or at least have their existence accepted by mainstream science, which is currently not the case. And that's why the list of anomalous effects in science is getting longer year after year.
Conservative force fields and closed loops
A conservative force field is a special kind of vector field that can be represented as the gradient of a potential. A force field is just a construct, which helps us visualise the effect of one object on another. In fact, one easily finds out that the SI units for electric force field, magnetic force field and gravitational force fields are not the same. This means that a force field is not a parameter per se. So, what do all these force fields have in common? It is when one works out the response to any of these fields that he always gets a result with the dimensions of force. That is, if one works out the response of a charge to an electric field, the result is a force vector. Similarly, if one works out the response of a mass to a gravitational field, the result is also a force vector. Again, if one works out the response of a magnetic pole to a magnetic field, the result is still a force vector. The equations used to work out the response of an entity within a field, are known as the equations of motion:
Electric force vector Fe = qeE
Magnetic force vector Fm = qmB
Gravitational force vector Fg = mg
In all cases, the field is always a result of a similar entity, which means that electric fields are due to the presence of electric charges, magnetic fields due to magnetic poles, and gravitational fields due to mass. Note, that I am using the statement 'due to the presence' and not 'sourced by'. The real source of the potential gradient, resides in vacuum electromagnetic energy. This choice of words would seem insignificant for most, but it actually has drastic effects on field equations which assume the response equations to be linear.
A conservative force is one that does zero net work on a particle that travels along any closed path in an isolated system. Basic postulates in this definition are the existence of a single point particle or point charge, a closed path, and an isolated system. A conservative force field can be represented as the gradient of a potential. Gravitational forces, electric forces, and magnetic forces are known to be conservative in a time-independent (static) field. Electricity and magnetism are distinct phenomena as long as charges and current are static. The work done in any closed loop shape, by such forces is independent on the path taken by the particle or charge and is equal to zero. This simply means that if a mass, electric charge or magnetic charge travels a closed loop in a static gravitational, electric or magnetic field respectively, it can never gain energy, or do any useful work. The work done in travelling from point X to Y, is always equal and opposite to the work done in travelling from point Y back to X. But if you really think about this, and consider the fact that the earth and solar system are in continuous rotational motion, you find out that the point X from where you started is never the same point in space of point X you returned. In fact, if you return to point X within 1 second from leaving X, you will be off by about 30km from your initial starting position, after just taking into account earth's rotation!
All machines work in a cycle, and so, we learn that for a particle moving under the action of a force field acting in the direction X to Y, there will be a path in the direction Y to X where the force acts against the direction of travel required to get the particle back under the positive influence of the force field. If both force field and the distance travelled by the particle in the direction of the force field are constant, then, the total work done will be zero. The situation can change, if either one of these parameters changes during the particle's way back. That is, if either the force field or the effective space-time distance travelled by the particle during its way back is different than that during its forward path, then, the total work done will have a non zero value. Net work done is also possible if the properties of the particle in motion deviate from that of a theoretical point particle during one closed cycle, in other words, if the system is no longer linear.
Nöether's Theorem and Symmetry
In 1915, Emmy Nöether derived what today we know as Nöether's theorem. She was one of the most brilliant mathematicians ever born. Quoting Einstein: 'she is the most significant creative mathematical genius thus far produced since the higher education of woman began'. His comment is not surprising, given that this theorem was developed specifically to address the problem of energy conservation in his theory of general relativity. One can also understand the reason for which Einstein had no other choice but to stress the fact that universal constants should be time invariant. This powerful theorem allows physicists to predict the physical properties of a system, by just analyzing the symmetry of various transformations in space and time. Three important results of this theorem can be applied to any closed physical system and generalised as follows:
The last point simply means that the conservation of energy is a direct consequence of the fact that all laws of physics (including the values of the physical constants as G, h, c, ...) are invariant under translation through time; that is, they are not supposed to change as time passes.(!!) Not all systems have the required time translation symmetry, however and in fact there is no known definition of energy in general relativity for systems which lack the required symmetry.
Although Nöether's Theorem is not as widely known as the above mentioned laws of thermodynamics, it is much powerful than all of them, as they all can be derived from it by the proper analysis of the symmetry of the system in question. In fact, a break in symmetry can invalidate ALL laws of thermodynamics, and ALL universal constants, but NOT Nöether's Theorem. The most interesting point about it, is that both logic inverse and logic converse of her theorem are also true. This in effect gives us a better understanding of physics, and puts SYMMETRY as a property of ultimate importance in physics. It is thus concluded that symmetry properties should form the basis of any physical theory and that conservation 'laws' should only follow once such properties are known. Unfortunately, Nöether's Theorem was never given the priority it deserves, and we are instead taught the above 3 generalisations as unconditional laws, instead of simply results of Nöether's theorem in the case of confirmed closed symmetrical systems. Instead of applying Nöether's theorem to asymmetrical systems, we just add the effects within these systems to the ever growing list of anomalous effects. As one might conclude after reading the rest of our research, this theorem may ultimately be found to be the only thing left intact of all known physics laws, and that by simply analysing the relationships between physical parameters, as derived in our ST system of units, and the symmetry of the system, all the rest can be derived.
Vacuum energy and ZPE
These two terms have been defined since a long time ago, and are part of mainstream physics. I still find comments like 'I do not believe in ZPE' or 'Vacuum is void of energy' in some discussions taking place over the web. Note that the point where mainstream and non-mainstream scientists disagree, is NOT about the existence of vacuum energy, but on the possible extraction of such energy to do useful work. Vacuum energy is defined as an underlying background energy that exists in space even when devoid of matter. Although the idea of empty space having a nonzero energy associated with it may at first seem a bit strange, this idea is at the root of the cosmological constant, a constant introduced into Einstein's GR field equations in order to provide a supplement to gravity. If positive (repulsive), it counteracts gravity, while if negative (attractive), it augments gravity. It can be interpreted physically as an energy density associated with space itself, that is, the energy density in vacuum. This is also directly evident from our ST system of units, which shows that the ratio of time per unit length, or if you wish, the aspect ratio of the space time fabric, is equal to vacuum energy itself. This energy density results in all the fundamental forces and all their effects, and is experimentally observed in various ways, like the spontaneous emission of electromagnetic radiation, the Casimir effect, Van-Der Waals bonds and Lamb shift. We learn that of all properties of vacuum, all may average out to a null value, with the exception of the vacuum energy, whose lowest energy level is a non zero value, called the Zero-point energy. The lowest value for such energy is NOT zero, and is given by:
ZPE = hf/2
This means that vacuum vibrations in even the smallest volume of space, have an energy close to Planck energy which is huge. The well known physicists Richard Feynman and John Wheeler once calculated that the quantity of vacuum energy contained in a single light bulb would be in the range from 1036 to 1070 Joules/m3, enough to boil all the world's oceans. So, why is a non-null vacuum energy named Zero point energy? The answer is more obvious from the definition found on Encyclopedia Britannica, which defines zero-point energy as the “vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature.” Basically, it means that ZPE is the sum of all electromagnetic energy from all frequencies reaching that region in space, at a temperature of absolute zero Kelvin. Whether or not it is practically possible to ever reach absolute zero temperature, is still unknown.
The existence of vacuum energy form the basis for the theoretical possibility of ZPE free energy machines. And here is where mainstream science mainly disagrees with anyone trying to exploit such energy to do useful work. Quantum theory predicts the existence of vacuum energy, but it also seems to predict that it can never be removed to do work because by definition, ZPE is the lowest possible energy state of vacuum - the ground state. Yet, experiments like the Casimir, evidently show that one can shield a number of oscillatory modes present in ZPE, and so offset the zero point level to a level lower than the surrounding ZPE value.
If the Casimir plate experiment is performed at zero Kelvin, the energy within its plates would still be lower than that of the surrounding space which is at an energy level equal to ZPE. Different vacuum energy levels, would imply changes in all so called universal constants, such as speed of light and gravitational constant. Using my ST system of units, the relation between background energy (T/S) and speed of light (S/T) is crystal clear. Simply decrease (or shadow) the background energy, and you get a faster speed for light. In fact, this effect has been mathematically derived for the Scharnhorst effect, which is a hypothetical phenomenon in which the speed of light is slightly greater between two closely-spaced conducting plates than it is in a normal vacuum. It was predicted by Klaus Scharnhorst of the Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany, and Gabriel Barton of the University of Sussex in Brighton, England. Hence the energy level between the Casimir plates at zero Kelvin must be lower than that given by the same definition of ZPE, and this would break down the primary definition of ZPE as being the lowest energy level that a quantum mechanical physical system may possess. It is this energy 'potential difference' which gives the possibility to extract useful work from the vacuum energy. One must understand, that the force acting upon the Casimir plates is not simply due to vacuum fluctuations, randomly pushing the plates towards each other, but it is the presence of an imbalance of ZPE energy levels, which generates a radiation pressure imbalance with that surrounding the plates at a higher level than that within the plates. It logically follows that the ZPE energy outside the plates is NOT the lowest possible energy state of vacuum, and that vacuum energy can be engineered to produce useful work. How can this be? Actually, there is a small loop hole in the quantum mechanics definition of a ground state, also called the vacuum state. In fact it is well known that more than one ground state can exist, and such states are said to be degenerate. The entropy of such degenerate ground states is no longer required to be at zero level, and to your surprise, entropy is simply defined as a measure of the availability of a system’s energy to do work. Entropy goes to zero, only in the case where the system has no more energy to give up, that is when the ZPE ground state reaches a non degenerate state, having a value of true zero.
So, now you should be able to answer questions like 'Is overunity possible?', 'Is a perpetual machine possible?', 'Is it possible to tap vacuum energy?'. (Answers are No, Yes, Yes respectively). The keys are knowledge of your system, that of the above mentioned theories and most of all, that of the postulates involved. Click on 'next' to go to our free energy project.
